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20 Walker, I. 2019. “Cybercriminals Have Your 29 Miller, J. 2018. “Spending on Legacy IT Con-
Business in Their Crosshairs and Your Em- tinues to Grow, But There Is Light at the End
ployees Are in Cahoots with Them”. Forbes. of the Tunnel”. Federal News Network. 17 Au-
31 January 2019. https://www.forbes.com/ gust 2018. https://federalnewsnetwork.com/
sites/ivywalker/2019/01/31/cybercrimi- ask-the-cio/2018/08/spending-on-legacy-it-
nals-have-your-business-their-crosshairs- continues-to-grow-but-there-is-light-at-the-
and-your-employees-are-in-cahoots-with- end-of-the-tunnel/; Bobeldijk, Y. 2017. “Banks
them/#683a874a1953 Face Spiralling Costs from 50-Year-Old IT”.
Financial News. 02 October 2017. https://
21 World Bank Open Data. 2019. https://data. www.fnlondon.com/articles/banks-face-spi-
worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?- raling-costs-from-archaic-it-20170912
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1 December 2019. 30 Gibney, E. 2019. “Hello Quantum World!
Google Publishes Landmark Quantum
22 WebFX. 2015. “What Are Data Brokers – And Supremacy Claim”. Nature. 23 October 2019.
What Is Your Data Worth?”. FX Blog post. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-
April 2015. https://www.webfx.com/blog/ 019-03213-z
general/what-are-data-brokers-and-what-is-
your-data-worth-infographic/ 31 Herman, A. and I. Friedson. 2018. Quantum
Computing: How to Address the National
23 Smith, B. 2019. “The combustion engine was Security Risk. Washington, DC: Hudson
the most impactful invention regarding the Institute. April 2018. https://s3.amazonaws.
economy. Today, it could be compared with com/media.hudson.org/files/publications/
the impact of artificial intelligence”. Microsoft Quantum18FINAL4.pdf
Portugal (@PTMicrosoft) citing Brad Smith
(@BradSmi #WebSummit”, 05 November 32 Smith, Z. 2019. “Can Big Money Crack
2019. https://twitter.com/PTMicrosoft/ Big Tech? The New Trends Threatening
status/1191748602554650625; Clifford, Today’s Digital Giants”. Observer. 05 Oc-
C. 2019. “Elon Musk: ‘Mark My Words – tober 2019. https://observer.com/2019/10/
A.I. Is Far More Dangerous Than Nukes’”. amazon-google-microsoft-cloud-comput-
CNBC. 13 March 2019. https://www.cnbc. ing-big-tech-big-money/
com/2018/03/13/elon-musk-at-sxsw-a-i-is-
more-dangerous-than-nuclear-weapons.html 33 See the IGF (Internet Governance Forum) for
a discussion of The Paris Call for Trust and
24 Metz, C. “Internet Companies Prepare to Security in Cyberspace; the Cybersecuri-
Fight the ‘Deepfake’ Future”. The New York ty Tech Accord; the Charter of Trust for a
Times. 24 November 2019. https://www.ny- secure digital world; the Global Commission
times.com/2019/11/24/technology/tech-com- on Stability in Cyberspace, and the Global
panies-deepfakes.html Cyber Alliance. See also the home page of
the CyberPeace Institute, https://cyberpea-
25 Saha, S., K. A. Mamun, K. Ahmed, R. ceinstitute.org/
Mostafa, G. R. Naik, A. Khandoker, S.
Darvishi and M. Baumert. 2017. “Progress 34 Other examples include the UN’s Group of
in Brain Computer Interfaces: Challenges Governmental Experts (UN GGE) and the
and Trends”. https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/pa- new Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) on
pers/1901/1901.03442.pdf Developments in the Field of Information and
Telecommunications in the Context of Inter-
26 Li, J. 2019. “Forget about 5G, China Has national Security. Organizations such as the
Kicked Off Its Development of 6G”. Quartz. International Telecommunication Union, the
07 November 2019. https://qz.com/1743790/ World Bank and Interpol have also developed
forget-5g-china-begins-development-of-6g/ technology and security measures.

27 Grijpink, F., A. Ménard, H. Sigurdson and N. Efforts have been led by regional organiza-
Vucevic. 2018. “The Road to 5G: The Inevita- tions as well, such as the Organisation for
ble Growth of Infrastructure Cost”. McKinsey. Security and Cooperation in Europe, the
February 2018. https://www.mckinsey.com/ Council of Europe, the Organization of Amer-
industries/technology-media-and-telecom- ican States, the ASEAN Regional Forum and
munications/our-insights/the-road-to-5g-the- the Organization of American States.
inevitable-growth-of-infrastructure-cost
See also recommendation 4 in United Na-
28 Global Infrastructure Hub. 2019. Investment tions. 2019. The Age of Digital Interdepend-
forecasts for Telecommunications. Global ence: Report of the UN Secretary-General’s
Infrastructure Outlook. https://outlook.gihub. High-level Panel on Digital Cooperation. June
org/sectors/telecommunication 2019. https://digitalcooperation.org/wp-con-
tent/uploads/2019/06/DigitalCooperation-re-
port-web-FINAL-1.pdf

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